Through
studying the field of education Piaget focused on accommodation and
assimilation. Assimilation, one of two processes coined by Jean Piaget,
describes how humans perceive and adapt to new information. It is the process
of taking one’s environment and new information and fitting it into
pre-existing cognitive schemas. Assimilation occurs when humans are faced with
new or unfamiliar information and refer to previously learned information in
order to make sense of it. Accommodation, unlike assimilation is the process of
taking one's environment and new information, and altering one's pre-existing
schemas in order to fit in the new information. Through a series of stages,
Piaget explains the ways in which characteristics are constructed that lead to
specific types of thinking; this chart is called Cognitive Development. To
Piaget, assimilation is integrating external elements into structures of lives
or environments or those we could have through experience. It is through
assimilation that accommodation is derived. Accommodation is imperative because
it is how people will continue to interpret new concepts, schemas, frameworks,
etc.Assimilation
is different from accommodation because of how it relates to the inner organism
due to the environment. Piaget believes that the human brain has been
programmed through evolution to bring equilibrium, and to move upwards in a process
to equilibrate what is not. The equilibrium is what Piaget believes ultimately
influences structures because of the internal and external processes through
assimilation and accommodation.
Piaget's
understanding is that these two functions cannot exist without the other. To
assimilate an object into an existing mental schema, one first needs to take
into account or accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain
extent; for instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an apple one needs
first to focus (accommodate) on the contour of this object. To do this one
needs to roughly recognize the size of the object. Development increases the
balance or equilibration between these two functions. When in balance with each
other, assimilation and accommodation generate mental schemas of the operative
intelligence. When one function dominates over the other, they generate
representations which belong to figurative intelligence.
The sensorimotor
stage is the first of the four stages in cognitive development which
"extends from birth to the acquisition of language"."In this
stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating
experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions.
Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on
it. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the
beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. Piaget divided the
sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages":from birth until
the age of two, infants have only senses: vision, hearing, and motor skills,
such as grasping, sucking, and stepping.
The first stage
is called the Sensorimotor stage (birth to about age 2). In this stage
knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it’s based on
physical interactions/experiences. The child learns that he is separate from
his environment and that aspects of his environment continue to exist even
though they may be outside the reach of his senses. Behaviors are limited to
simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. In this stage according to
Piaget, the development of object
permanence is one of the most important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage.
(Object permanence is a child’s understanding that objects continue to exist
even though they cannot be seen or heard).
Sub-Stage
|
Age
|
Description
|
1 Simple Reflexes
|
Birth-6 weeks
|
"Coordination of sensation
and action through reflexive behaviors".[5] Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting
objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact
with the palm (palmar grasp). Over the first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin
to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes
intentional grasping.[7]).
|
2 First habits and primary
circular reactions phase
|
6 weeks-4 months
|
"Coordination of sensation
and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions
(reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance). Main focus is
still on the infant's body." As an example of this type of reaction, an infant might
repeat the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also at this
phase, passive reactions, caused by classical
or operant conditioning, can begin.
|
3 Secondary circular reactions
phase
|
4–8 months
|
Development of habits. "Infants become more
object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring
interesting or pleasurable results."This stage is associated primarily with the development
of coordination
between vision and prehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional
grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and
differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will
intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to
the amusement of friends and family. Secondary circular reactions, or the
repetition of an action involving an external object begin; for example,
moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between
means and ends also occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important stages
of a child's growth as it signifies the dawn of logic.
|
4 Coordination of secondary
circular reactions stages
|
8–12 months
|
"Coordination of vision and
touch--hand-eye coordination; coordination of schemes and
intentionality." This stage is associated primarily with the development
of logic and the coordination between means and ends. This is an extremely
important stage of development, holding what Piaget calls the "first
proper intelligence." Also, this stage marks the
beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate planning of steps
to meet an objective.
|
5 Tertiary circular reactions,
novelty, and curiosity
|
12–18 months
|
"Infants become intrigued by
the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to
objects; they experiment with new behavior." This stage is associated primarily with the discovery of
new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the
"young scientist," conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new
methods of meeting challenges.
|
6 Internalization of Schemes
|
18–24 months
|
"Infants develop the ability
to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental representations." This stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of
insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.
|
By the end of
the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and permanent.
Object permanence is the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Acquiring
the sense of object permanence is one of the infant's most important
accomplishments, according to Piaget.
The Cognitive
Development Approaches. By observing sequences of play, Jean Piaget was able to
demonstrate that towards the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind
of psychological functioning occurs.
(Pre)Operatory
Thought is any
procedure for mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational
stage is sparse and logically inadequate mental operations. During this stage,
the child learns to use and to represent objects by images, words, and
drawings. The child is able to form stable concepts as well as mental reasoning
and magical beliefs. The child however is still not able to perform operations;
tasks that the child can do mentally rather than physically. Thinking is still
egocentric. The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Two
substages can be formed from preoperative thought.[8]
- The Symbolic Function Substage
Occurs between about the ages of 2 and
7. At 2-4 years of age, kids cannot yet manipulate and transform information in
logical ways, but they now can think in images and symbols. The child is able
to formulate designs of objects that are not present. Other examples of mental
abilities are language and pretend play. Although there is an advance in
progress, there are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism.
Egocentrism occurs when a child is unable to distinguish between their own
perspective and that of another person's. Children tend to pick their own view
of what they see rather than the actual view shown to others. An example is an
experiment performed by Piaget and BarbelInhelder. Three views of a mountain
are shown and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see at the various
angles; the child picks their own view compared to the actual view of the doll.
Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have
lifelike qualities. An example is a child believing that the sidewalk was mad
and made them fall down.
- The Intuitive Thought Substage
Occurs between about the ages of 4 and
7. Children tend to become very curious and ask many questions; begin the use
of primitive reasoning. There is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and
wanting to know why things are the way they are. Piaget called it the intuitive
substage because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge but they
are unaware of how they know it.'Centration' and 'conservation' are both
involved in preoperative thought. Centration is the act of focusing all
attention on one characteristic compared to the others. Centration is noticed
in conservation; the awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not
change its basic properties. Children at this stage are unaware of
conservation.Example, In Piaget's most famous task, a child is presented with
two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. The child usually
notes that the beakers have the same amount of liquid.When one of the beakers
is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger than 7
or 8 years old typically say that the two beakers no longer contain the same
amount of liquid, and the taller container holds the larger quantity. The child
simply focuses on the height and width of the container compared to the general
concept.
The second
stage is called Pre-operational stage (begins about the time the child starts
to talk at about the age of 2). Intelligence is demonstrated through the use of
symbols, language use matures, and memory and imaginations are developed. The
child’s thinking is influenced by fantasy (the way the child would like things
to be) and the child assumes that others see situations from his viewpoint. The
child takes in informations and then changes it in his mind to fit his idea. Piaget
noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot
mentally manipulate information. Children’s increase in playing and pretending
takes place in the pre-operational stage.
The concrete
operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in
Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the preoperational stage, occurs
between the ages of 7 and 11 years[9] and is characterized by the appropriate
use of logic. Important processes during this stage are:
Seriation—the ability to
sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic.
For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.
Transitivity- Transitivity,
which refers to the ability to recognize relationships among various things in
a serial order. For example, when told to put away his books according to
height, the child recognizes that he starts with placing the tallest one on one
end of the bookshelf and the shortest one ends up at the other end.
Classification—the ability to
name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other
characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.
Decentering—where the
child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For
example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup
to contain less than a normally wide, taller cup.
Reversibility—the child
understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their
original state. For example, during this stage, a child understands that a
favorite ball that deflates is not gone but can be filled with air again and
put back into play.
Conservation—understanding
that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or
appearance of the object or items.
Elimination of
Egocentrism—the ability to
view things from another's perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For
instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leaves
the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A
child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it's
under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See also False-belief
task).
Children in
this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual (concrete)
objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks.
The third stage
is known as Concrete operational stage (First grade to early adolescence):
Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of
symbols related to concrete objects. The child develops an ability to think
abstractly and to make rational judgements about concrete or observable
phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to understand.
Logic: Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were
able to incorporate inductive logic. On the other hand, children at this age
have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle
to predict the outcome of a specific event. Reversibility: An example of this
is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories.
For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a
Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal, and draw
conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these
processes to hypothetical situations. The abstract
quality of the adolescent's thought at the formal operational level is evident
in the adolescent's verbal problem solving ability.The logical
quality of the adolescent's thought is when children are more likely to solve
problems in a trial-and-error fashion. Adolescents
begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and
systematically testing solutions. They use
hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which means that they develop hypotheses or
best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to
follow in solving the problem. During this
stage the adolescent is able to understand such things as love, "shades of
gray", logical proofs and values. During this stage the young person
begins to entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated with what
they can be. Adolescents
are changing cognitively also by the way that they think about social matters.Adolescent
Egocentrism governs the way that adolescents think about social matters and is
the heightened self-consciousness in them as they are which is reflected in
their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.Adolescent
egocentrism can be dissected into two types of social thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention getting
behavior, and personal
fable which involves
an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.
The final stage
is known as Formal operational stage (adolescence and into adulthood):
Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to
abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and
deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the ability to think
about abstract concepts. Logic: Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes
important during the formal operational stage. This type of thinking involves
hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics.
Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational stage. Children tend to
think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages. Children begin to
consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. Problem-Solving is
demonstrated when children use trial-and-error to solve problems. The ability
to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges.
Piaget sees
children’s conception of causation as a march from "primitive"
conceptions of cause to those of a more scientific, rigorous, and mechanical
nature. These primitive concepts are characterized as magical, with a decidedly nonnatural or nonmechanical tone.
Piaget attributes this to his most basic assumption: that babies are phenomenists. That is,
their knowledge "consists of assimilating things to schemas" from their own action such that they appear, from
the child’s point of view, "to have qualities which in fact stem from the
organism." Consequently, these "subjective conceptions," so
prevalent during Piaget’s first stage of development, are dashed upon discovering
deeper empirical truths. Piaget gives the example of a child believing the moon
and stars follow him on a night walk; upon learning that such is the case for
his friends, he must separate his self from the object, resulting in a theory
that the moon is immobile, or moves independently of other agents. The second stage, from around three to eight years of
age, is characterized by a mix of this type of magical, animistic, or
“nonnatural” conceptions of causation and mechanical or
"naturalisitic" causation. This conjunction of natural and nonnatural
causal explanations supposedly stems from experience itself, though Piaget does
not make much of an attempt to describe the nature of the differences in
conception; in his interviews with children, he asked specifically about
natural phenomena: what makes clouds move? What makes the stars move? Why do rivers
flow? The nature of all the answers given, Piaget says, are such that these
objects must perform their actions to "fulfill their obligations towards
men." He calls this "moral explanation."[11]
Piagetians'
accounts of development have been challenged on several grounds. First, as
Piaget himself noted, development does not always progress in the smooth manner
his theory seems to predict. 'Decalage', or unpredicted gaps in the developmental
progression, suggest that the stage model is at best a useful approximation.
Furthermore, studies have found that children may be able to learn concepts
supposedly represented in more advanced stages with relative ease.[12] More broadly,
Piaget's theory is 'domain general', predicting that cognitive maturation
occurs concurrently across different domains of knowledge (such as mathematics, logic, understanding
of physics, of language, etc.). During
the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive developmentalists were influenced by
"neo-nativist" and evolutionary psychology ideas. These ideas
de-emphasized domain general theories and emphasized domain specificity or modularity of mind. Modularity implies that different
cognitive faculties may be largely independent of one another and thus develop
according to quite different time-tables. In this vein, some cognitive
developmentalists argued that rather than being domain general learners,
children come equipped with domain specific theories, sometimes referred to as
'core knowledge', which allows them to break into learning within that domain.
For example, even young infants appear to be sensitive to some predictable
regularities in the movement and interactions of objects (e.g. that one object
cannot pass through another), or in human behavior (e.g. that a hand repeatedly
reaching for an object has that object, not just a particular path of motion),
as its be the building block out of which more elaborate knowledge is
constructed. More recent work has strongly challenged some of the basic
presumptions of the 'core knowledge' school, and revised ideas of domain
generality—but from a newer dynamic systems approach, not from a revised
Piagetian perspective. Dynamic systems approaches harken to modern
neuroscientific research that was not available to Piaget when he was
constructing his theory. One important finding is that domain-specific
knowledge is constructed as children develop and integrate knowledge. This
suggests more of a "smooth integration" of learning and development
than either Piaget, or his neo-nativist critics, had envisioned. Additionally,
some psychologists, such as Vygotsky and Jerome
Bruner, thought
differently from Piaget, suggesting that language was more important than
Piaget implied.
Main article: Neo-Piagetian theories of
cognitive development
In the recent
years, several scholars attempted to ameliorate the problems of Piaget's theory
by developing new theories and models that can accommodate evidence that
violates Piagetian predictions and postulates. These models are summarized
below.
- The neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, advanced by Case, Demetriou, Halford, Fischer, and Pascual-Leone, attempted to integrate Piaget's theory with cognitive and differential theories of cognitive organization and development. Their aim was to better account for the cognitive factors of development and for intra-individual and inter-individual differences in cognitive development. They suggested that development along Piaget's stages is due to increasing working memory capacity and processing efficiency. Moreover, Demetriou´s theory ascribes an important role to hypercognitive processes of self-recording, self-monitoring, and self-regulation and it recognizes the operation of several relatively autonomous domains of thought (Demetriou, 1998; Demetriou, Mouyi, Spanoudis, 2010).
- Postformal stages have been proposed. Kurt Fischer suggested two, Michael Commons presents evidence for four postformal stages: the systematic, metasystematic, paradigmatic and cross paradigmatic. (Commons & Richards, 2003; Oliver, 2004).
- A "sentential" stage has been proposed, said to occur before the early preoperational stage. Proposed by Fischer, Biggs and Biggs, Commons, and Richards.
- Searching for a micro-physiological basis for human mental capacity, Traill (1978, Section C5.4 [2]; - 1999, Section 8.4 [3]) proposed that there may be "pre-sensorimotor" stages ("M−1L", "M−2L", … … ) — developed in the womb and/or transmitted genetically.
Piaget (1967)
considered the possibility of RNA molecules as likely
embodiments of his still-abstract "schemes" (which he promoted as
units of action)—though he did not come to any firm conclusion. At that time,
due to work such as that of HolgerHydén, RNA concentrations had indeed been
shown to correlate with learning, so the idea was quite plausible.
However, by the
time of Piaget's death in 1980, this notion had lost favour. One main problem
was over the protein which (it was assumed) such RNA would necessarily produce,
and that did not fit in with observation. It then turned out, surprisingly,
that only about 3% of RNA does code for protein (Mattick, 2001, 2003, 2004).
Hence most of the remaining 97% (the "ncRNA")
could now theoretically be available to serve as Piagetian schemes (or other
regulatory roles now under investigation). The issue has not yet been resolved experimentally,
but its theoretical aspects have been reviewed; (Traill 2005 / 2008).
Piaget designed
a number of tasks to verify hypotheses arising from his theory. The tasks were
not intended to measure individual differences, and they have no equivalent in
psychometric intelligence tests. Notwithstanding the different research
traditions in which psychometric tests and Piagetian tasks were developed, the
correlations between the two types of measures have been found to be
consistently positive and generally moderate in magnitude. A common general
factor underlies them. It has been shown that it is possible to construct a
battery consisting of Piagetian tasks that is as good a measure of general intelligence as standard IQ
tests.[13][14][15]
- Cheryl Armon's Stages of the Good Life
- Michael Barnes's stages of religious and scientific thinking
- Michael Lamport Commons' Model of Hierarchical Complexity
- Andreas Demetriou'sNeo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development
- Kieran Egan's stages of understanding
- Suzy Gablik's stages of art history
- Christopher Hallpike's stages of moral understanding
- Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
- Loevinger's stages of ego development
- Don Lepan's theory of the origins of modern thought and drama
- Charles Radding's theory of the medieval intellectual development
- R.J. Robinson's stages of history and theory of the origins of intelligence
- Ashby, W.Ross (1952/1960) Design for a Brain. London: Chapman & Hall — gives a theoretical brain model which implies stages of development comparable to Piaget's; see Traill (1978).
- Stafford Beer, a cybernetician and business-consultant, attempted to apply Ashby's principles to Companies and Government organizations. (e.g. Beer, 1972).
- Biggs, J. &K.Collis (1982). A system of evaluating learning outcomes: The SOLO Taxonomy. New York: Academic Press.
- Chapman, M. (1988). "Constructive Evolution: Origins and Development of Piaget’s Thought". New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Cole, M, et al. (2005). The Development of Children. New York: Worth Publishers.
- Commons, M.L. & F.A. Richards (1984). "A general model of stage theory" — and — "Applying the general stage model". In M.L.Commons, F.A.Richards, &C.Armon (Eds.). Beyond formal operations: Vol.1: Late adolescent and adult cognitivedevelopment (pp. 120–140, 141-157). New York: Praeger.
- Commons, M.L. & F.A. Richards (2002). "Organizing components into combinations: How stage transition works". Journal of Adult Development, 9(3), 159-177.
- Commons, M.L. & F.A. Richards (2003). "Four postformal stages". In J. Demick& C. Andreoletti (Eds.), Handbook of adult development (pp. 199–219). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
- Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology (pp. 179–269). London: Wiley.
- Demetriou, A., Mouyi, A., &Spanoudis, G. (2010). The development of mental processing. Nesselroade, J. R. (2010). Methods in the study of life-span human development: Issues and answers. In W. F. Overton (Ed.), Biology, cognition and methods across the life-span. Volume 1 of the Handbook of life-span development (pp. 36–55), Editor-in-chief: R. M. Lerner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
- Fischer, K.W. (1980). "A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchical skills". Psychological Review, 87(2), 477-531.
- Oliver, C.R. (2004). Impact of catastrophe on pivotal national leaders' vision statements: Correspondences and discrepancies in moral reasoning, explanatory style, and rumination. Dissertation: Fielding Graduate Institute. http://dareassociation.org/Carl.Oliver_Dissertation_2004.pdf
- Marcus, G. F. (2001). The Algebraic Mind: Integrating Connectionism and Cognitive Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Mattick, J.S. (2001). “Noncoding RNAs: the architects of eukaryotic complexity”. EMBO Reports2(11), 986-991. [4]
- Mattick, J.S. (2003). “Challenging the dogma: The hidden layer of non-protein-coding RNAs on complex organisms” Bioessays. 25, 930-939. [5]
- Mattick, J.S. (2004). “The hidden genetic program of complex organisms” Scientific American. 291(4), 30-37. [6]
- Pascual-Leone, J. (1970). "A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages", ActaPsychologica, 32(4), 301-345.
- Pascual-Leone, J. (1987). "Organismic processes for neo-Piagetian theories: A dialectical causal account of cognitive development". In: A.Demetriou (Ed.) The neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development: Towards an integration. Amsterdam: North-Holland; pp. 531–569.